سوال ۲۱ کنکور ارشد مهندسی کامپیوتر ۱۴۰۳

Read the following excerpt from PASSAGE 3 and answer the question.

In parallel with the growing recognition of computer design and engineering as a distinct area of professional activity, computer development moved from universities to the private sector. ... The case of Engineering Research Associates (ERA) offers further insights about the position of engineers in one pioneering firm. ... The company's founders and early personnel included a roughly even mix of mathematicians, electrical engineers, and physicists. ... "40 percent of the 1943 electrical engineering graduates of the University of Minnesota . . . joined ERA after the war ..." Additional details can be gleaned from a 1952 personnel directory, which reveals that more than 60 percent of the company's "professional" staff held engineering degrees. ... For these engineers, professional standing rested not only on preexisting academic credentials (such as degrees in electrical engineering) and specialized expertise, expert over specific work tasks, and differentiation from other professionals.

The passage mentions all of the following terms EXCEPT ......... .