سوال ۲۱ کنکور ارشد مدیریت ۱۴۰۲

Passage summary — paragraph 1: The systems concept arose in the seventeenth century, spread through physics, biology and chemistry and later ecology, engineering, economics, anthropology, sociology and cybernetics, became a framework and language across disciplines, and underpinned Checkland’s foundational work on systems thinking. Paragraph 2: Systems thinking deliberately organizes thought around an interconnected whole whose parts, termed system-components, include people and non-human technologies or structures with physical, natural, social, economic, cultural and cognitive dimensions. Paragraph 3: A system is an adapting whole with emergent properties, layers, communication and control, and systems thinking has several principles described by Anderson and Johnson. Paragraph 4: The first principle, called Big Picture, recommends broadening one’s view beyond urgent symptoms to trace their causes elsewhere in the system and find a better solution.

The passage mentions all of the following disciplines in which the idea of “systems” was used for their explanations EXCEPT -----------.